This study determines the effects of stearic acid and gamma irradiation, alone and in combination, on properties of amylose-lipid nanomaterials from pasted high amylose maize starch (HAMS) with and without alpha amylase hydrolysis. HAMS was incorporated with stearic acid (0, 1.5% and 5%, w/w), irradiated at 0, 30 and 60 kGy and pasted under pressure in a rheometer. Isolated materials after thermostable alpha amylase or hot water washing were freeze-dried and characterised using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The isolated materials contain amylose-lipid complexes (ALCs) as determined by DSC and XRD. Pasting of gamma irradiated HAMS produced type I ALCs, whereas that for un-irradiated HAMS produced type II ALCs. The ALCs occurred at nanoscale with sizes ranging from 10 to 110 nm as observed with AFM and TEM. Tailor-made ALCs nanomaterials can be produced from HAMS (with and without added stearic acid).
modification is usually achieved with synthetic chemicals but cannot be referred to as “clean label.” Fatty acids, such as stearic acid, can be used to modify starch by forming amylose–lipid complexes (ALCs) to potentially produce non‐gelling “clean label” starches. The objective of this study is to determine the effects of screw configuration, screw speed, and stearic acid addition during extrusion cooking on the properties of extruded maize starch. A 2 × 2 × 3 factorial design is used. That is, two screw types (normal‐ and reactor‐type), two screw speeds (100 and 125 rpm), and three levels of stearic acid (0%, 1.5%, and 4%) are applied at a feed rate of 5 kg h−1 and a barrel moisture content of 40%. The extrudates are dried and milled, and their functional properties, including the water absorption index (WAI), water solubility fraction (WSF), pasting properties, and gel texture, are determined. Extrusion cooking of maize starch with a normal screw and stearic acid (1.5% or 4%) significantly (P < 0.05) decrease the WAI and first peak viscosity of the maize starch extrudate. Extrusion cooking of maize starch with a normal screw or reactor screw and stearic acid (1.5% or 4%) significantly (P < 0.05) decrease the gel texture of the maize starch extrudate. Extrusion cooking of maize starch with a reactor screw, stearic acid (1.5% or 4%) and a screw speed of 125 rpm after 90 min of pasting produce more amylose–lipid complexes. Extrusion cooking of maize starch with added stearic acid has the potential to produce non‐gelling “clean label” ALCs.
Amylose-lipid complexes can be formed by interaction between amylose and lipid as ligands. This study determines the effects of ascorbyl palmitate (0, 15, 50, 100, and 200 mg/g starch) on the functional properties of maize starches (normal and high amylose maize starch), amount of ascorbyl palmitate bound, release of ascorbyl palmitate after enzymatic hydrolysis and ascorbyl palmitate antioxidant activity after spray drying. Spray drying of starches (normal maize starch and high amylose maize starch) with ascorbyl palmitate at 185 °C resulted in the formation of type I amylose-lipid complexes. Entrapment of ascorbyl palmitate in the starch matrix also occurred during spray drying, and this was observed with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) micrographs. As expected, more ascorbyl palmitate bound with high amylose maize starch than normal maize starch. Less than 40% of the bound ascorbyl palmitate to high amylose maize starch was released during pancreatic α-amylase hydrolysis suggesting that some of the complexes were indigestible and can be fermented in the large intestine. The antioxidant activities of the ascorbyl palmitate highly correlated (R = 0.97) to the amount released during enzymatic hydrolysis. It can be concluded that spray drying of maize starches can be used to encapsulate ascorbyl palmitate to form amylose-lipid complexes with a higher amount of ascorbyl palmitate bound with maize starches when spray dried compared to pasting method as previously reported.
This paper analyses the policy agendas that shape the food environment in South Africa, and aims to identify potential to improve policy coherence for nutrition, across economic sectors in South Africa. From a food supply perspective, food security and nutrition policy is effectively governed by economic policy actors – this includes agriculture, trade, finance, investment and commerce/industry.
The paper explores one aspect of the food security question, namely the livelihoods of farmworkers, which ultimately speaks to the sustainability of farms and the provision of food. It focuses on the emergence of locally made private social codes (Wine and Agricultural Ethical Trade Association – WIETA, and Sustainability Initiative of South Africa – SIZA) in the Western Cape fruit and wine sectors and how compliance with such codes has increasingly become a requirement to export to certain markets (being an aspect of vertical governance in the fruit and wine value chains).
Many standards in private social codes duplicate rights in national legislation, but some standards improve on statutory rights and certain enabling standards that offer leveraging opportunities to worker organisations to further improve wages and working conditions. Such leveraging constitutes a form of horizontal governance of the fruit and wine value chains.
The paper analyses key sections of the two locally made social codes against the Fairtrade code and Sectoral Determination 13 (SD13). The analysis indicates where the codes improve on SD13 and how they compare to the Fairtrade code, which is generally seen to offer the best enabling standards for workers. The paper then presents the results of empirical research on the extent to which worker organisations – that is, trade unions and labour-oriented non-governmental organisations (NGOs) – have leveraged relevant standards to effect improvements for workers. The role of the state in facilitating such leveraging is also explored.
The paper finds that, in general, worker organisations have little knowledge of the WIETA and SIZA codes and hardly any attempts have been made to leverage the codes. The only contestation of the codes that had a significant impact was from an actor outside the sector and country, namely the documentary film-maker who produced Bitter Grapes. The paper questions why worker organisations have made so little of the codes.
The low capacity of such organisations is one explanation, but these organisations are also disenchanted with the codes because WIETA’s and SIZA’s sanctioning of non-compliance has been insufficient. However, probably the main reason for the failure to leverage codes is that they focus on the farm rather than the value chain. This focus excludes (primarily) global retailers and the failings in vertical governance from an assessment of the limited impact of codes.
On the one hand, it is evident to many that codes are more for appearances to mollify consumers, rather than to drive real changes in working conditions and labour relations on farms. On the other hand, in terms of farmers’ bargaining power vis-à-vis global buyers and worker organisations’ ability to make gains for workers by leveraging the codes, the effectiveness of the codes’ horizontal governance has been seriously undermined by the South African state.
This paper looks at the dynamics of intra-regional trade and investment in fish and fish products between South Africa and the rest of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) region, and the implications of this trade for food and nutrition security. It is based on key informant interviews with people in the food industry in South Africa and Africa regional economic bodies. Imports and exports of fish in South Africa are driven by import substitution, shortfalls in local production, and meeting growing local and regional demand.
Most South African fish and food processors prefer to export, rather than establish plants in other African countries, mainly due to factors of economic efficiency and the challenges of doing business in these countries. Currently, however, increasing volumes of fish are being imported into South Africa to meet demand from the African migrant community.
While self-sufficiency and food sovereignty are acknowledged priorities for the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC), imports to meet local shortfalls and specific demand ought to be acceptable options for ensuring fish food availability and affordability. The reduction or removal of tariffs, through regional free trade agreements, promotes increased intra-regional trade. Overall, imports and exports provide for demand-led exchange of fish between SADC states, which promotes increased availability and affordability of fish; thereby contributing towards food and nutrition security.
However, despite regional free trade agreements that have stipulated the removal of both technical and non-technical barriers, most small-scale traders still experience problems in conducting cross-border trade. The majority of people in both South Africa and the SADC still rely heavily on the informal sector for conduct business and buying food provisions. This includes cross-border fish trade, which is dominated by small scale-traders, the majority of whom are women.
The informal sector ensures that food reaches most people in an acceptable state, form and price. In order to promote and facilitate improved and efficient fish trade delivery systems and positive benefits for food security and livelihoods, governance of cross-border trade ought to be based on flexible regulations and improved implementation of these.
The purpose of this paper is to consider the role that trade plays in food and nutrition security in South Africa. Despite an established commercial food system, South Africans experience high levels of food and nutrition insecurity – both under-nutrition and rising rates of diet-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) defines food security as ‘a situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’.
This paper considers three dimensions of food security – availability, access and nutrition – and unpacks the role of trade across these dimensions at policy level and in practice in sugar and poultry, two key commodities in the food basket of resource-poor South African households. The paper starts with an overview of the global trade regime within which South Africa operates. It then looks at how trade is situated in current agricultural, food and nutrition security policy, with an overview of agro-food trade in South Africa and trends over the past decade.
The core of the paper focuses on sugar and poultry, for more detailed investigation, providing an overview of: commodity specific trade and regulatory regimes; trade and production impacts on availability; employment and livelihoods in relation to trade dynamics; trade impacts on nutrition and health in the specific commodities; and reflections on the role of trade in these selected commodities.
This paper aims to review what is currently known about the role played by the informal sector in general and informal retailers in particular, in the accessibility of food in South Africa. The review seeks to identify policy relevant research gaps. Drawing on Statistics South Africa data, we show that the informal sector is an important source of employment, dominated by informal trade with the sale of food a significant subsector within this trade. We then turn our attention to what is known about the informal sector’s role in food sourcing of poorer households.
African Food Security Urban Network’s surveys show that urban residents and particularly low income households regularly sourced food from the informal sector and we explore why this might be the case through an expanded view of access. We then consider existing evidence on the implications of increased supermarket penetration for informal retailers and food security.
Having established the importance of the informal sector, we turn our attention to the policy environment. First we assess the food security policy position and then the post-apartheid policy response to the informal sector – nationally, in provinces, and in key urban centres. We trace a productionist and rural bias in the food security agenda and argue that the policy environment for informal operators is at best benign neglect and at worse actively destructive, with serious food security implications.
Throughout the paper we draw on regional and international evidence to locate the South African issues within wider related trends.
This paper seeks to assess the state of knowledge in relation to the interrelated subjects of value chains, livelihoods, food systems, and regulatory dynamics in South Africa’s large- and small-scale fisheries. South Africa’s marine fisheries play an important role in sustaining the livelihoods and food security of poorer coastal communities. However, the post-apartheid fisheries dispensation is marked by structural inequalities between large- and small-scale fisheries sectors, with direct implications for livelihoods and food security.
Addressing these inequalities in practice requires a critical understanding of South Africa’s fisheries economy and governance system, and in particular, the way that benefits from the country’s marine commons are distributed within society. As a means to assess the state of knowledge regarding these subjects, the paper reviews key literature that engages with small- and large-scale fisheries value chains, and the livelihoods and food systems they sustain.
Literature on fisheries governance is also reviewed to assess how fisheries value chains are shaped by the regulatory environment.
Having reviewed what is known in the literature about South Africa’s fisheries economy and governance system, the paper briefly considers the implications of this knowledge for small-scale fisheries value chains, and for the local livelihoods and food systems of poorer coastal communities who depend on small-scale fisheries. The paper also identifies important knowledge gaps and future research objectives in relation to the economics and power dynamics of fisheries value chains.
Finally, the paper discusses key themes emerging from the literature that help to shed light on the current process in South Africa’s fisheries.